Midwifery & Womens Health Nurse Practitioner Certification Review Guide Page 236

Health science and profession that deals with pregnancy, childbirth, and the postpartum catamenia (including intendance of the newborn)

Midwifery

A pregnancy bank check-up by a midwife in a nativity center
Focus	Pregnancy Childbirth Postpartum Newborn care Women's wellness Reproductive health
Specialist	Midwife

Midwifery is the health science and health profession that deals with pregnancy, childbirth, and the postpartum period (including care of the newborn),^[i] in addition to the sexual and reproductive health of women throughout their lives.^[2] In many countries, midwifery is a medical profession^{[iii] [four] [5] [6] [7]} (special for its contained and direct specialized instruction; should not be confused with the medical specialty, which depends on a previous general training). A professional person in midwifery is known as a midwife.

A 2013 Cochrane review concluded that "nigh women should be offered midwifery-led continuity models of care and women should be encouraged to ask for this option although caution should be exercised in applying this advice to women with substantial medical or obstetric complications."^[8] The review found that midwifery-led care was associated with a reduction in the utilize of epidurals, with fewer episiotomies or instrumental births, and a decreased chance of losing the baby before 24 weeks' gestation. However, midwifery-led care was also associated with a longer mean length of labor as measured in hours.^[8]

Main areas of midwifery [edit]

Pregnancy [edit]

Commencement trimester [edit]

Trimester means "3 months". A normal pregnancy lasts near nine months and has 3 trimesters.^[9]

Get-go trimester screening varies by country. Women are typically offered urine analysis (UA) and blood tests including a complete claret count (CBC), blood typing (including Rh screen), syphilis, hepatitis, HIV, and rubella testing.^[nine] Additionally, women may have chlamydia testing via a urine sample, and women considered at high risk are screened for sickle cell affliction and thalassemia.^[9] Women must consent to all tests earlier they are carried out. The woman's blood pressure level, height and weight are measured. Her by pregnancies and family, social, and medical history are discussed. Women may have an ultrasound scan during the starting time trimester which may exist used to assist notice the estimated due date. Some women may have genetic testing, such as screening for Downwards syndrome. Diet, exercise, and common disorders of pregnancy such as morn sickness are discussed.^[9]

This image shows the progression of pregnancy over the three trimesters.

Second trimester [edit]

The mother visits the midwife monthly or more frequently during the second trimester. The mother'southward partner and/or the nascence companion may accompany her. The midwife will hash out pregnancy issues such as fatigue, heartburn, varicose veins, and other mutual issues such every bit back pain. Blood pressure and weight are monitored and the midwife measures the mother's abdomen to run into if the baby is growing as expected. Lab tests such as a UA, CBC, and glucose tolerance exam are done if clinically indicated.^[10]

Third trimester [edit]

In the third trimester the midwife will encounter the female parent every ii weeks until week 36 and every week after that. Weight, claret pressure level, and abdominal measurements will continue to be done. Lab tests such equally a CBC and UA may be done with boosted testing done for at-hazard pregnancies. The midwife palpates the woman's abdomen to establish the lie, presentation and position of the fetus and later, the appointment. A pelvic exam may be washed to see if the female parent's neck is dilating.^[11] The midwife and the mother discuss birthing options and write a birth care plan.

Childbirth [edit]

Labor and delivery [edit]

An illustration of normal caput-first presentation. The membranes accept ruptured and the cervix is fully dilated.

Newborn rests as caregiver checks breath sounds

Midwives are qualified to assist with a normal vaginal commitment while more complicated deliveries are handled past a health care provider who has had further training. Childbirth is divided into four stages.

Kickoff phase of labor The first stage of labour involves the opening of the cervix.^[12] In the early parts of this stage the cervix will become soft and thin thus preparing for the delivery of the babe.^[12] The first stage of labour is complete when the cervix has dilated the total 10cm.^[12] During the starting time stage of labor the female parent begins to feel stiff and regular contractions that come every 5 to 20 minutes and final 30 to 60 seconds. Contractions gradually go stronger, more frequent, and longer lasting.

2nd stage of labor During the second stage the baby begins to move downwards the birth canal. As the infant moves to the opening of the vagina it "crowns", meaning the top of the caput can be seen at the vaginal archway. At one time an "episiotomy", (an incision in the tissue at the opening of the vagina) was done routinely because it was believed that information technology prevented excessive tearing and healed more readily than a natural tear.^[thirteen] However, more than contempo inquiry shows that a surgical incision may be more extensive than a natural tear, and is more likely to contribute to later incontinence and pain during sexual practice than a natural tear would have.^[thirteen]

The midwife assists the baby every bit needed and when fully emerged, cuts the umbilical cord. If desired, either of the baby's parents may cut the cord. In the past the cord was cut shortly after birth, but there is growing show that delayed string clamping may do good the infant.^[14]

Third phase of labor The third stage of labour is where the mother must deliver the placenta.^[12] In lodge for the mother to do this they may need to button. Only like the contractions in the first stage of labour they may experience 1 or 2 of these.^[12] The midwife may assist the female parent in delivering the placenta past gently pulling on the umbilical cord.^[12]

4th stage of labor The 4th stage of labor is the period starting time immediately afterwards the birth and extending for most six weeks. The World Health Organization describes this period as the most critical and even so the most neglected phase in the lives of mothers and babies.^[15] Until recently babies were routinely removed from their mothers following birth, notwithstanding outset around 2000, some authorities began to suggest that early pare-to-pare contact (placing the naked baby on the female parent's breast) is of benefit to both female parent and baby. As of 2014, early skin-to-skin contact is endorsed by all major organizations that are responsible for the well-being of infants.^[16] Thus, to assist establish bonding and successful breastfeeding, the midwife carries out firsthand mother and infant assessments as the infant lies on the female parent'south breast and removes the babe for farther observations only after they accept had their first breastfeed.

Post-obit the nascence, if the mother had an episiotomy or a trigger-happy of the perineum, information technology is sutured. The midwife does regular assessments for uterine contraction, fundal height,^[17] and vaginal bleeding.^[xviii] Throughout labor and delivery the mother's vital signs (temperature, blood pressure level, and pulse) are closely monitored and her fluid intake and output are measured. The midwife as well monitors the baby's pulse rate, palpates the mother'southward abdomen to monitor the babe's position, and does vaginal examinations every bit indicated. If the nativity deviates from the norm at any stage, the midwife requests assistance from the multi-disciplinary team.

Birthing positions [edit]

Until the terminal century about women have used both the upright position and alternative positions to give birth. The lithotomy position was not used until the advent of forceps in the seventeenth century and since and then childbirth has progressively moved from a adult female supported feel in the home to a medical intervention within the hospital. There are significant advantages to assuming an upright position in labor and nascence, such as stronger and more efficient uterine contractions aiding cervical dilatation, increased pelvic inlet and outlet diameters and improved uterine contractility.^[19] Upright positions in the second stage include sitting, squatting, kneeling, and beingness on easily and knees.^[20]

Postpartum period [edit]

For women who take a infirmary birth, the minimum hospital stay is half-dozen hours. Women who leave before this do so against medical communication. Women may cull when to get out the hospital. Full postnatal assessments are conducted daily whilst inpatient, or more than frequently if needed. A postnatal cess includes the woman's observations, general well beingness, breasts (either a discussion and assistance with breastfeeding or a give-and-take virtually lactation suppression), abdominal palpation (if she has non had a caesarean section) to check for involution of the uterus, or a bank check of her caesarean wound (the dressing doesn't need to exist removed for this), a check of her perineum, particularly if she tore or had stitches, reviewing her lochia, ensuring she has passed urine and had her bowels open and checking for signs and symptoms of a DVT. The baby is also checked for jaundice, signs of adequate feeding, or other concerns. The infant has a plant nursery test between vi and seventy two hours of nascency to check for conditions such as centre defects, hip problems, or eye problems.

In the community, the community midwife sees the woman at least until twenty-four hour period 10. This does not mean she sees the woman and baby daily, but she cannot discharge them from her care until mean solar day ten at the earliest. Postnatal checks include neonatal screening test (NST, or heel prick examination) around twenty-four hour period five. The baby is weighed and the midwife plans visits according to the health and needs of mother and infant. They are discharged to the intendance of the wellness company.

Care of the newborn [edit]

At birth, the infant receives an Apgar score at, at the to the lowest degree, one minute and v minutes of historic period. This is a score out of 10 that assesses the baby on 5 dissimilar areas—each worth between 0 and two points. These areas are: colour, respiratory attempt, tone, center rate, and response to stimuli. The midwife checks the baby for any obvious problems, weighs the babe, and measure head circumference. The midwife ensures the cord has been clamped securely and the infant has the appropriate name tags on (if in infirmary). Babies lengths are non routinely measured. The midwife performs these checks as close to the female parent as possible and returns the baby to the female parent rapidly. Skin-to-skin is encouraged, as this regulates the infant'due south heart rate, animate, oxygen saturation, and temperature—and promotes bonding and breastfeeding.

In some countries, such as Chile, the midwife is the professional who can directly neonatal intensive intendance units. This is an advantage for these professionals, because this professionals tin utilise the knowledge in perinatology to bring a high quality care of the newborn, with medical or surgical atmospheric condition.

Midwifery-led continuity of intendance [edit]

Clinical midwifery facilitator preparation midwives

"Babies" for pupil practice

Midwifery-led continuity of care is where one or more than midwives have the master responsibleness for the continuity of intendance for childbearing women, with a multidisciplinary network of consultation and referral with other wellness care providers. This is dissimilar from "medical-led care" where an obstetrician or family physician is primarily responsible. In "shared-care" models, responsibleness may be shared between a midwife, an obstetrician and/or a family physician.^[8] The midwife is part of very intimate situations with the female parent. For this reason, many say that the most important affair to look for in a midwife is comfortability with them, as one will go to them with every question or problem.^[21]

Co-ordinate to a Cochrane review of public health systems in Australia, Canada, Republic of ireland, New Zealand and the United Kingdom, "most women should be offered midwifery-led continuity models of intendance and women should exist encouraged to ask for this choice although caution should exist exercised in applying this advice to women with substantial medical or obstetric complications." Midwifery-led care has effects including the following:^[viii]

• a reduction in the apply of epidurals, with fewer episiotomies or instrumental births.
• a longer mean length of labour as measured in hours
• increased chances of being cared for in labour by a midwife known by the childbearing woman
• increased chances of having a spontaneous vaginal nascence
• decreased gamble of preterm nascency
• decreased risk of losing the baby earlier 24 weeks' gestation, although in that location appears to be no differences in the run a risk of losing the baby after 24 weeks or overall

At that place was no deviation in the number of Caesarean sections. All trials in the Cochrane review included licensed midwives, and none included lay or traditional midwives. Also, no trial included out of infirmary birth.^[8]

History [edit]

Ancient history [edit]

A woman giving birth on a birth chair, from a work past High german physician Eucharius Rößlin

Icon Birth of Mary (detail). Russian federation, 17th century

In aboriginal Egypt, midwifery was a recognized female occupation, every bit attested past the Ebers Papyrus which dates from 1900 to 1550 BCE. 5 columns of this papyrus deal with obstetrics and gynecology, especially concerning the dispatch of parturition (the action or procedure of giving birth to offspring) and the birth prognosis of the newborn. The Westcar papyrus, dated to 1700 BCE, includes instructions for calculating the expected engagement of confinement and describes different styles of nascency chairs. Bas reliefs in the royal birth rooms at Luxor and other temples also attest to the heavy presence of midwifery in this culture.^[22]

Midwifery in Greco-Roman antiquity covered a wide range of women, including sometime women who continued folk medical traditions in the villages of the Roman Empire, trained midwives who garnered their knowledge from a diversity of sources, and highly trained women who were considered physicians.^[23] Even so, at that place were sure characteristics desired in a "good" midwife, as described by the md Soranus of Ephesus in the 2nd century. He states in his work, Gynecology, that "a suitable person volition be literate, with her wits about her, possessed of a good memory, loving piece of work, respectable and by and large not unduly handicapped as regards her senses [i.east., sight, smell, hearing], sound of limb, robust, and, co-ordinate to some people, endowed with long slim fingers and short nails at her fingertips." Soranus also recommends that the midwife be of sympathetic disposition (although she need not accept borne a kid herself) and that she go along her hands soft for the condolement of both mother and child.^[24] Pliny, some other doc from this fourth dimension, valued nobility and a quiet and inconspicuous disposition in a midwife.^[25] There appears to have been three "grades" of midwives present: The showtime was technically practiced; the second may have read some of the texts on obstetrics and gynecology; but the third was highly trained and reasonably considered a medical specialist with a concentration in midwifery.^[25]

Agnodice or Agnodike (Gr. Ἀγνοδίκη) was the earliest historical, and likely apocryphal,^[26] midwife mentioned among the ancient Greeks.^[27]

Midwives were known by many different titles in antiquity, ranging from iatrinē (Gr. nurse), maia (Gr., midwife), obstetrix (Lat., obstetrician), and medica (Lat., md).^[28] It appears as though midwifery was treated differently in the Eastern end of the Mediterranean basin equally opposed to the W. In the East, some women advanced beyond the profession of midwife (maia) to that of gynaecologist (iatros gynaikeios, translated as women's physician), for which formal training was required. Besides, in that location were some gynecological tracts circulating in the medical and educated circles of the East that were written past women with Greek names, although these women were few in number. Based on these facts, it would announced that midwifery in the East was a respectable profession in which respectable women could earn their livelihoods and enough esteem to publish works read and cited past male physicians. In fact, a number of Roman legal provisions strongly suggest that midwives enjoyed condition and remuneration comparable to that of male person doctors.^[24] One example of such a midwife is Salpe of Lemnos, who wrote on women's diseases and was mentioned several times in the works of Pliny.^[25]

Aboriginal Roman relief carving of a midwife

Withal, in the Roman West, information about practicing midwives comes mainly from funerary epitaphs. 2 hypotheses are suggested by looking at a small sample of these epitaphs. The first is the midwifery was not a profession to which freeborn women of families that had enjoyed free condition of several generations were attracted; therefore it seems that most midwives were of servile origin. 2nd, since most of these funeral epitaphs describe the women as freed, it tin be proposed that midwives were generally valued enough, and earned enough income, to be able to gain their freedom. It is not known from these epitaphs how certain slave women were selected for training as midwives. Slave girls may have been apprenticed, and it is most likely that mothers taught their daughters.^[24]

The bodily duties of the midwife in antiquity consisted mainly of profitable in the birthing process, although they may besides have helped with other medical issues relating to women when needed. Frequently, the midwife would call for the assist of a physician when a more hard birth was anticipated. In many cases the midwife brought along 2 or three assistants.^[29] In artifact, it was believed by both midwives and physicians that a normal delivery was fabricated easier when a woman sabbatum upright. Therefore, during parturition, midwives brought a stool to the home where the delivery was to take place. In the seat of the birthstool was a crescent-shaped pigsty through which the baby would be delivered. The birthstool or chair often had armrests for the mother to grasp during the delivery. Most birthstools or chairs had backs which the patient could press against, merely Soranus suggests that in some cases the chairs were backless and an banana would stand backside the mother to support her.^[24] The midwife sat facing the female parent, encouraging and supporting her through the birth, mayhap offering education on breathing and pushing, sometimes massaging her vaginal opening, and supporting her perineum during the delivery of the baby. The assistants may have helped by pushing downwardly on the tiptop of the mother'south abdomen.

Finally, the midwife received the infant, placed it in pieces of fabric, cut the umbilical cord, and cleansed the baby.^[25] The child was sprinkled with "fine and powdery table salt, or natron or aphronitre" to soak up the birth residue, rinsed, and then powdered and rinsed again. Next, the midwives cleared abroad any and all fungus present from the nose, mouth, ears, or anus. Midwives were encouraged by Soranus to put olive oil in the infant'due south eyes to cleanse away any birth residual, and to place a piece of wool soaked in olive oil over the umbilical string. Later the delivery, the midwife made the initial telephone call on whether or non an infant was salubrious and fit to rear. She inspected the newborn for congenital deformities and testing its cry to hear whether or not information technology was robust and hearty. Ultimately, midwives made a decision well-nigh the chances for an infant's survival and likely recommended that a newborn with whatever astringent deformities exist exposed.^[24]

A 2nd-century terracotta relief from the Ostian tomb of Scribonia Attice, wife of doctor-surgeon M. Ulpius Amerimnus, details a childbirth scene. Scribonia was a midwife and the relief shows her in the midst of a commitment. A patient sits in the birth chair, gripping the handles and the midwife'south banana stands behind her providing support. Scribonia sits on a depression stool in front of the woman, modestly looking away while also assisting the delivery by dilating and massaging the vagina, as encouraged by Soranus.^[25]

The services of a midwife were not inexpensive; this fact that suggests poorer women who could non afford the services of a professional midwife ofttimes had to brand do with female relatives. Many wealthier families had their ain midwives. Notwithstanding, the vast majority of women in the Greco-Roman world very probable received their maternity care from hired midwives. They may have been highly trained or possessed only a rudimentary cognition of obstetrics. Also, many families had a choice of whether or not they wanted to employ a midwife who adept the traditional folk medicine or the newer methods of professional parturition.^[24] Like a lot of other factors in antiquity, quality gynecological care often depended heavily on the socioeconomic condition of the patient.

Mail-classical history [edit]

18th-century etching of William Hunter attending a significant woman. The caption notes that "not until a strenuous fight with the midwives was it customary for obstetricians to be present at confinements."

This section is empty. Y'all tin can assistance by adding to it. (August 2015)

^{[thirty] [31]}

Modern history [edit]

From the 18th century, a disharmonize between surgeons and midwives arose, as medical men began to assert that their modern scientific techniques were better for mothers and infants than the folk medicine practiced by midwives.^{[32] [33]} As doctors and medical associations pushed for a legal monopoly on obstetrical intendance, midwifery became outlawed or heavily regulated throughout the United States and Canada.^{[34] [35]} In Northern Europe and Russia, the situation for midwives was a little easier - in the Duchy of Estonia in Imperial Russia, Professor Christian Friedrich Deutsch established a midwifery school for women at the Academy of Dorpat in 1811, which existed until World War I. It was the predecessor for the Tartu Health Care College. Preparation lasted for seven months and in the end a document for practice was issued to the female students. Despite accusations that midwives were "incompetent and ignorant",^[36] some argued that poorly trained surgeons were far more of a danger to pregnant women.^[37] In 1846, the physician Ignaz Semmelweiss observed that more women died in maternity wards staffed by male person surgeons than by female midwives, and traced these outbreaks of puerperal fever dorsum to (and then all-male) medical students not washing their hands properly afterward dissecting cadavers, just his sanitary recommendations were ignored until acceptance of germ theory became widespread.^{[38] [39]} The argument that surgeons were more dangerous than midwives lasted until the study of bacteriology became popular in the early 1900s and infirmary hygiene was improved. Women began to feel safer in the setting of the hospitals with the amount of aid and the ease of nativity that they experienced with doctors.^{[ citation needed ]} "Physicians trained in the new century constitute a great contrast between their hospital and obstetrics do in women's homes where they could non maintain sterile conditions or take trained assist."^[40] German social scientists Gunnar Heinsohn and Otto Steiger conjecture that midwifery became a target of persecution and repression by public authorities because midwives possessed highly specialized knowledge and skills regarding not only assisting birth, but too contraception and ballgame.^[41]

Contemporary [edit]

At late 20th century, midwives were already recognized as highly trained and specialized professionals in obstetrics. Yet, at the beginning of the 21st century, the medical perception of pregnancy and childbirth as potentially pathological and dangerous notwithstanding dominates Western culture. Midwives who work in hospital settings also have been influenced by this view, although by and large they are trained to view nascence as a normal and good for you process. While midwives play a much larger role in the care of pregnant mothers in Europe than in America, the medicalized model of nativity still has influence in those countries, even though the Earth Health Organization recommends a natural, normal and humanized birth.^[42]

The midwifery model of pregnancy and childbirth as a normal and healthy procedure plays a much larger part in Sweden and the Netherlands than the residue of Europe, however. Swedish midwives stand out, since they administer lxxx percent of prenatal intendance and more than eighty percent of family unit planning services in Sweden. Midwives in Sweden attend all normal births in public hospitals and Swedish women tend to accept fewer interventions in hospitals than American women. The Dutch infant bloodshed rate is one of the everyman rate in the world, at 4.0 deaths per chiliad births, while the United States ranked twenty-second. Midwives in the netherlands and Sweden owe a great deal of their success to supportive government policies.^[43]

Meet also [edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Midwifery.

• Afghanistan Midwifery Projection
• Childbirth and obstetrics in artifact
• Global Library of Women'southward Medicine
• International Confederation of Midwives
• Obstetrics
• Midwifery in Maya society

References [edit]

Notes

1. ^ "Definition of Midwifery". Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved v February 2017.
2. ^ "International Definition of the Midwife". International Confederation of Midwives. Archived from the original on 2017-09-22. Retrieved 30 August 2017.
3. ^ "Die Hebamme in Belgien". Belgian Midwives Association (BMA). Retrieved thirteen May 2017.
4. ^ "Vecmātes specialitātes nolikums". Latvijas Vecmāšu Asociācija. Archived from the original on 21 June 2017. Retrieved 13 May 2017.
5. ^ "Les compétences des sages-femmes". Ordre des sages-femmes. Retrieved 13 May 2017.
6. ^ "Bacheloropleiding Verloskunde". Academie Verloskunde Maastricht. Retrieved 13 May 2017.
7. ^ "Waarom Verloskunde?". Academie Verloskunde Amsterdam Groningen. Retrieved 13 May 2017.
8. ^ ^{a b c d e} Sandall, Jane; Soltani, Hora; Gates, Simon; Shennan, Andrew; Devane, Declan (2013). "Midwife-led continuity models versus other models of treat childbearing women". Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 8 (8): CD004667. doi:ten.1002/14651858.CD004667.pub3. PMID 23963739.
9. ^ ^{a b c d} "Prenatal care in your get-go trimester". U.Southward. Department of Health & Human Services. 1 July 1015. Retrieved viii August 2015.
10. ^ "Prenatal care in your 2nd trimester". U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. 1 July 2015. Retrieved 8 August 2015.
11. ^ "Prenatal care in your tertiary trimester". U.S. Section of Health and Human Services. six November 2014. Retrieved x August 2015.
12. ^ ^{a b c d e f} "Stages of Labour". The women's: The Majestic Women's Infirmary . Retrieved 17 May 2016.
13. ^ ^{a b} Mayo Clinic staff (thirty July 2015). "Labor and delivery, postpartum care". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 15 August 2015.
14. ^ Mozes, Alan (26 May 2015). "Delaying Umbilical Cord Clamping Might Boost Child Development". Retrieved 18 October 2015.
15. ^ WHO. "WHO recommendations on postnatal intendance of the mother and newborn". WHO. Archived from the original on March 7, 2014. Retrieved 22 December 2014.
16. ^ Phillips, Raylene. "Uninterrupted Skin-to-Skin Contact Immediately Subsequently Birth". Medscape. Retrieved 21 December 2014.
17. ^ "Postpartum Assessment". ATI Nursing Education. Archived from the original on 2014-12-24. Retrieved 24 Dec 2014.
18. ^ Mayo clinic staff. "Postpartum intendance: What to expect after a vaginal delivery". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 23 December 2014.
19. ^ Searle, Lorraine (April 2010). "Factors influencing maternal positions during labor". Archived from the original on 22 Feb 2016. Retrieved 10 August 2015.
20. ^ Gelis, Jacues. History of Childbirth. Boston: Northern Academy Press, 1991: 122-134
21. ^ "The midwife: Your best friend in natal care". 2010-10-05. Retrieved 2017-10-04 .
22. ^ Jean Towler and Joan Bramall, Midwives in History and Society (London: Croom Helm, 1986), p. 9
23. ^ Rebecca Flemming, Medicine and the Making of Roman Women (Oxford: Oxford Academy Printing, 2000), p. 359
24. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Valerie French, "Midwives and Motherhood Care in the Roman Earth" (Helios, New Series 12(2), 1986), pp. 69-84
25. ^ ^{a b c d e} Ralph Jackson, Doctors and Diseases in the Roman Empire (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1988), p. 97
26. ^ "Women in Medicine". www.hsl.virginia.edu. Archived from the original on 2013-04-03. Retrieved 2012-12-10 .
27. ^ Greenhill, William Alexander (1867). "Agnodice". In Smith, William (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Vol. i. Boston: Niggling, Brown and Visitor. p. 74. Archived from the original on 2012-10-07. Retrieved 2012-12-10 .
28. ^ Rebecca Flemming, Medicine and the Making of Roman Women (Oxford: Oxford University Printing, 2000), pp. 421-424
29. ^ Towler and Bramall, p.12
30. ^ Medical practitioners were subjected to more regulation in the Center Ages, especially women that had non received proper schooling in their desired medical fields. Although the medical field was condign a male person monopoly with these regulations, midwifery was yet dominated by women, as men had not had schooling or education in obstetrics.
31. ^ Minkowski, W L (Feb 1992). "Women healers of the heart ages: selected aspects of their history". American Journal of Public Wellness. 82 (two): 292–293. doi:10.2105/ajph.82.2.288. PMC1694293. PMID 1739168.
32. ^ Van Teijlingen, Edwin R.; Lowis, George Due west.; McCaffery, Peter G. (2004). Midwifery and the Medicalization of Childbirth: Comparative Perspectives. Nova Publishers. ISBN9781594540318.
33. ^ Borst, Charlotte Thou. (1995). Catching Babies: The Professionalization of Childbirth, 1870-1920. Harvard University Press. ISBN9780674102620.
34. ^ Ehrenreich, Barbara; Deirdre English language (2010). Witches, Midwives and Nurses: A History of Women Healers (2nd ed.). The Feminist Press. pp. 85–87. ISBN978-0-912670-13-3.
35. ^ Rooks, Judith Pence (1997). Midwifery and childbirth in America. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. p. 422. ISBNane-56639-711-i.
36. ^ Varney, Helen (2004). Varney'south midwifery (4th ed.). Sudbury, Mass.: Jones and Bartlett. p. seven. ISBN0-7637-1856-4.
37. ^ Williams, J. Whitridge (1912). "The Midwife Trouble and Medical Education in the United States". American Clan for Written report and Prevention of Babe Mortality: Transactions of the Second Annual Meeting: 165–194.
38. ^ Davis, Rebecca. "The Md Who Championed Manus-Washing And Briefly Saved Lives". NPR . Retrieved 10 December 2019.
39. ^ Historical perspective on hand hygiene in wellness intendance (2009). WHO Guidelines on Mitt Hygiene in Health Care: First Global Patient Safety Challenge Clean Care Is Safer Care. Geneva: Globe Wellness Organization. p. 4. Retrieved 10 December 2019.
40. ^ Leavitt, Judith W. (1988). Brought to Bed: Childbearing in America, 1750-1950. Book: Oxford University Printing. p. 178. ISBN978-0195056907.
41. ^ Gunnar Heinsohn/Otto Steiger: "Witchcraft, Population Catastrophe and Economic Crisis in Renaissance Europe: An Alternative Macroeconomic Caption.", University of Bremen 2004 (download) ^{[ permanent expressionless link ]} ; Heinsohn, Gunnar; Steiger, Otto (May 1982). "The Elimination of Medieval Nascency Control and the Witch Trials of Modern Times". International Journal of Women'due south Studies. 3: 193–214. Heinsohn, Gunnar; Steiger, Otto (1999). "Birth Control: The Political-Economic Rationale Backside Jean Bodin's 'Démonomanie'". History of Political Economic system. 31 (3): 423–448. doi:10.1215/00182702-31-iii-423. PMID 21275210. S2CID 31013297.
42. ^ "Fortaleza Annunciation: Advisable Use of Applied science for Birth". World Wellness Organization. 22–26 Apr 1985. Archived from the original on 2020-02-16. Retrieved 2020-06-11 .
43. ^ Lingo, Alison Klairmont (2004). "Obstetrics and Midwifery § Midwifery from 1900 to the Present". Encyclopedia of Children and Babyhood in History and Society. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale. Retrieved June 28, 2015 , from Encyclopedia.com.

Bibliography

• Craven, Christa. 2007 A "Consumer's Right" to Choose a Midwife: Shifting Meanings for Reproductive Rights under Neoliberalism. American Anthropologist, Vol. 109, Issue 4, pp. 701–712. In I.50. Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queens Academy Press.
• Ford, Anne R., & Wagner, Vicki. In Bourgeautt, Ivy L., Benoit, Cecilia, and Davis-Floyd, Robbie, ed. 2004 Reconceiving Midwifery. McGill-Queen'south Academy Press: Montreal & Kingston
• MacDonald, Margaret. 2007 At Work in the Field of Nativity: Midwifery Narratives of Nature, Tradition, and Domicile. Vanderbilt University Press: Nashville
• Martin Emily (1991). "The Egg and the Sperm: How Science Has Constructed a Romance Based on Stereotypical Male-Female person Roles". Journal of Women in Culture and Lodge. xvi (iii): 485–501. doi:10.1086/494680. S2CID 145638689.
• (in Dutch) Obstetricians in the metropolis of Groningen.

Farther reading [edit]

• Litoff, Judy Barrett. "An historical overview of midwifery in the Us." Pre-and Peri-natal Psychology Journal 1990; v(1): 5 online
• Litoff, Judy Barrett. "Midwives and History." In Rima D. Apple tree, ed., The History of Women, Health, and Medicine in America: An Encyclopedic Handbook (Garland Publishing, 1990) covers the historiography.
• S. Solagbade Popoola, Ikunle Abiyamo: It is on Bent Knees that I gave Birth 2007 Research material, scientific and historical content based on traditional forms of African Midwifery from Yoruba of West Africa detailed inside the Ifa traditional philosophy. Asefin Media Publication
• Greene, M. F. (2012). "Ii Hundred Years of Progress in the Practice of Midwifery". New England Periodical of Medicine. 367 (18): 1732–1740. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1209764. PMID 23113484. S2CID 19487046.
• Tsoucalas G., Karamanou M., Sgantzos Thousand. (2014). "Midwifery in ancient Hellenic republic, midwife or gynaecologist-obstetrician?". Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology. 34 (six): 547. doi:x.3109/01443615.2014.911834. PMID 24832625. S2CID 207435300. {{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors listing (link)

External links [edit]

Await upwards midwifery in Wiktionary, the gratis lexicon.

• Media related to Midwifery at Wikimedia Commons
• International Confederation of Midwives (ICM)
• Partnership Maternal Newborn and Child Health (PMNCH)

troutonlamenscaught.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midwifery

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